A Look At British History History Essay

A Look At British History History Essay It was a turbulent century in British history. A brief study of the era of 1550 to 1650 clearly illustrates why. This was a period of invention, scientific advancement and astrological discoveries, yet it remained filled with supernatural notions, superstition, mythology and plain ignorance. During this era, Britain embarked on an age of great world exploration and mighty conquests while fighting bloody wars of religion, class and political dominance at home. This century was marked by a great rebirth of the arts in which intellectuals and artists flourished in Britain, yet it was also a time of strife, hardship, disease and hunger. It was during this chaotic era that Britain came to be known as the center of Western civilization under the humane and rational rule of Queen Elizabeth I (World). It was also during this time that the poet and playwright William Shakespeare lived, worked and wrote some of historys most remarkable literary works having been influenced by and having drawn upon the social thought, religious conviction and political landscape of this tumultuous era (World). Prior to and during the time of Queen Elizabeth and the time of the Renaissance, Britain was a breeding ground for religious and political unrest. Beginning in 1531, the countrys official religion changed five times in accordance with the choice of the King or Queen who was in power at the time (Elizabethan). Since most of the English common people believed that Kings and Queens were directly connected to God and must be obeyed at all times, the monarchs chosen religion was also followed by most of the monarchs subjects (Time). Britains official religion was Catholic until 1531, then it was Protestant until Queen Mary took the throne after which it became Catholic again and then back to Protestant during Queen Elizabeths reign (Time). Each change in power led to a change in the nations official religion which, in turn, led to persecution of the non-ruling religious group. The political thinking during this period was controlled by a small number of powerful ruling families and jealou sies and rivalries within these families made these political conflicts even more severe (Time). During this era, England was a leader in world exploration and soon became a major commercial power. It was also a time of advancements in technology and invention. All of the unrest and uncertainty, however, left the common people feeling discontent and afraid of the many changes that were happening to their nation. The era in British history between 1550 to 1650 during the time that Queen Elizabeth held the throne has been characterized by British people as one of the best epochs the country ever had (World). While it is true that during her time in power Queen Elizabeth calmed religious unrest, established Britain as a leading world power and ushered in the age of the Renaissance or rebirth of new ideas and new thinking, the life of ordinary citizen was harsh. The majority of the population, referred to as common people, lived short lives filled with hard labor, little food, no schooling, rampant disease, poverty, violence, crime, high infant mortality and inequality between men and women (Time). In cities, life was particularly filthy, brutal and short. There was no running water in homes and so most people were dirty and smelly. Human and animal waste was thrown out directly onto the streets (Time). These unclean conditions formed a breeding ground for the spread of diseases such as typhus, bubonic plague, tuberculosis and influenza (Time). Rogues and vagabonds roamed the roads begging and stealing (Time). Riots were common and could turn violent. Such harsh conditions at home were one of the reasons that many British common people chose to travel to the colonies in the New World in search of a better way of life. It is, therefore, no surprise that entertainment was extremely important to the common people. Even the poorest of the people enjoyed entertainment from acting troupes, dancing, jugglers, strolling players, and plays. Theatre was especially popular with the common people and it was inexpensive to attend (Tudor). It was during this time that open air playhouses first came to be in the cities of Britain, including the Rose, the Swan, and the Globe Theatre in London which was owned, in part, by Shakespeare (Tudor). William Shakespeare fed upon the atmosphere and the feelings occurring during this turbulent era of British history and he used them extensively in his plays and other literary works. One such example is a speech by a character named John of Guant in Shakespeares 1601 play, Richard II, expressing his love for England and his concerns about the countrys future (Time). All of the major events, people, places and problems of this era, including class structure, religious discont ent, fate, rebellion against authority and prominent figures of the time, influenced Shakespeare and provided inspiration and background for his literary works (Who). In his plays, Shakespeare chose to write about many of the periods topics of conversation and disagreement, including classical Greek and Roman tales, superstition, love, revenge and rebellion. The works of playwrights such as Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe contributed to Londons eventual rise as a center of culture and art. Their contributions to this time period will forever mark the social, religious and political thinking of the time and illustrate the conflicts that made the era of 1550 to1650 one of the most turbulent eras in British history. Works Cited Elizabethan Period. ELIZABETHAN ERA. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. . Time Travellers Guide to Tudor England. Channel 4. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. . The Tudor Church. UK Travel and Heritage Britain Express UK Travel Guide. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. . Who Was around in 1550 to 1650 in Great Britain? WikiAnswers The QA Wiki. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. . World History of 1550 to 1650. 2020 Site Wedding Invitation Wording, Family Crests, Trees and Other Eclectic Information at 2020. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. .

Beer Wars-Documentary Review

MBA 650EV| Beer Wars| A Documentary| | Table of Contents Introduction2 How the Large Got/Stay Large2 Why Light is King3 Craft Beer Facts3 The Craft Beer Way4 Spreading the News5 Large Feeling the Effects5 Political Issues6 Conclusion7 Introduction Beer Wars was a very eye-opening documentary. It was interesting to see how the market share of the largest beer company, Anheiser-Busch, has grown throughout the years. In 1965, Anheiser-Busch had a meager market share of twelve percent. As marketing on television grew in popularity, Anheiser-Busch’s market share grew as well.By 1985, Anheiser-Busch’s market share had grew to thirty-seven percent. By 2005, Anheiser-Busch’s market share had grown to an enormous forty-nine percent. This was very shocking to me that one company could control almost one-half of the market share of a $97 billion industry. Also, in 1985, the other two largest beer makers, Miller and Coors, made up about twenty-six percent of the market share . Thus, in 2005, major beer companies made up seventy-five percent of the beer sales in the United States. Which tells us that craft breweries only had twenty-five percent of the market share.How the Large Got/Stay Large In the beginning, all beers were craft beers, until the big three companies wanted to grow, and grow they did. Unfortunately, as the three largest beer companies in the United States grew, the beer-drinking public that was buying their beer were actually the people who were suffering. The reason that I say this is because of the way the large beer manufacturers got to this point. The large beer manufacturers were not very concerned about the quality of their beers as much as they were about the number of sales that were created.The way that the large beer companies did this was through their advertising campaigns. The large beer companies were/are millions and millions of dollars during different sporting functions and on every day television. Beer Wars told us that , on average, there is about $1. 5 billion spent on advertising by the large beer companies every single year. That number is astounding to me, considering how popular their beers are. I think if they were to cut back their advertisements by about 50%, they would still maintain a stranglehold on the beer market in the United States.Another way that large beer companies tend to stay on top of the market is through shelf space at different locations. The large beer companies tend to make many different varieties of beers and thus are afforded more space on the shelves and local markets and liquor stores. This leaves a very small area for craft beers to be displayed, especially when it is very difficult to determine if a beer is a craft beer or made by one of the large beer companies. I will talk more about this later in the discussion. Why Light is King The large beer companies tend to market light lager beers, and for good reason.About eighty-five percent of the beer consumed in the United States is light lager. So, Miller Lite, Coors Light and Bud-Light are very good money makers for the large beer companies. I would not blame the companies for pushing and selling what the people want, or is this what people want? Craft Beer Facts Well, craft beers haven’t fully caught on in the beer markets. NPR. org tells us that craft beers only make up about five percent of the total beer market. According to NPR. org, there are currently over two thousand breweries in the United States.Of those two thousand, about 1,950 of those breweries are considered craft beer breweries. That’s another very interesting point. Ninety-five percent of the breweries in the United States are brewing about five percent of the beer that is sold in the United States. That really doesn’t seem right, but NPR. org goes on to tell us that in order to be a craft brewery, the breweries cannot brew more than 6 million barrels of beer every year. According to texaswatchdog. org, Anheiser-Busch alone brewed over one hundred million barrels of beer in 2011. That is an amazingly large amount of beer for one company to sell.This also tells us that the hope is not nearly lost for craft brewers. If all of the 1,950 craft brewers produced only ? million barrels of beer each year, they could easily cripple the large beer manufacturers with an influx of 975 million barrels of beer flooding the marketplace. But, the vast majority of craft brewers would never want to do that. The Craft Beer Way The craft brewers in the United States and around the world have a completely different take on what it means to brew beer. Dogfish Head craft beer was said to only have . 0002% of the market share of beer sales in the United States.According to brewersassociation. org, Dogfish Head craft beer ranked 12th in the nation in 2011, based upon the number of sales for a craft brewery. That is truly amazing, how a company ranked 12th in the whole country in craft beer sales still only has . 0002% of the total market share of the beer industry. However, the owner of the company said that he would never want to grow like the large beer companies have. He is more concerned about each and every bottle of beer being the best beer possible, rather than worrying too much about how many cases he is able to send out the door.As a whole, craft beer makers try to capture their piece of the market through differentiation of their products and not through advertising like the large beer companies. Craft beer makers still try to do new and interesting things with beer, but they do their best not to lose focus on the most important factor, a good quality brew. Spreading the News Beer Wars told us that one event that allows craft breweries to get their name out to the public is the great American beer festival. This is an event where brewers go to from all over the world for people to sample and try different beers that the craft brewers make.This is a great way for the small b reweries to get their name out to the market. Unfortunately, Beer Wars told us that even the large beer companies are starting to attend this event. Large Feeling the Effects The large beer companies have now started feeling the effects of small craft beers in the marketplace. According to brewerassociation. org, craft brew beer sales have increased from about one percent to about six percent of market share in the past fifteen years. This is the only portion of the beer industry to have any sign growth in that timeframe.Once again, the large beer companies are using their financial advantage to combat this trend. Anheiser-Busch has gone out and purchased several small beer company names and have been selling them as craft beers, where in fact they are mass produced at one of many Anheiser-Busch’s factories. Another way that large beer companies are flexing their monetary muscles is through lawsuits. Beer Wars described how one craft brewer was being sued by Anheiser-Busch fo r using a name that the brewer had used for years. The problem with this is that Anheiser-Busch had not been using that name for very long.Another issue with this is that craft brewers do not have the financial means to be able to hold off many lawsuits from large beer manufacturers. The reason that this is difficult for craft beer makers is the fact that funding for craft breweries is very hard to come by. Usually investors either invest in very large ventures or very small ventures. Most of the time, craft beer makers are somewhere in the middle as far as their funding needs go. Because of this oddity, gaining funds for the production facilities for a craft brewery is very hard to obtain through normal financing. Political IssuesSome of the other challenges for the craft beer manufacturers is found in Washington, D. C. Beer Wars tells us that beer lobbyists are one of the most powerful group of lobbyists in Washington. The main focus of these lobbyists is ensuring that the three-t ier system of distribution is held intact. The three-tier distribution system basically splits up the beer manufacturers, the beer distributors and the beer retailers. This rule was put in after prohibition to make sure that beer sales would be fair across all persons involved. Basically, so the large beer makers couldn’t prevent others from getting their product onto store shelves.Unfortunately, this is exactly what is happening. Distributors tend to lend favor to the large beer companies, because they are paid by how much beer they deliver, and as we saw from Beer Wars, the large beer manufacturers still control that volume of beer sales. So, when the distributors are putting the beer on the shelves of the retailer, they will basically give the large beer companies whatever kind of shelving presence that they desire, basically because they are getting incentivized to do so. I definitely think that the three-tier system needs to be looked at and revamped to meet the needs of today’s marketplace.Conclusion Overall, this documentary was a very interesting look into the beer manufacturer marketplace. I never realized before how devious the large beer manufacturers are when it comes to protecting their market share. With both the lawsuits over naming rights and the basic control of beer distributors, it’s amazing that any craft beer makers even stand a chance of holding any portion of market share. I believe that the large beer manufacturers are scared of what could happen very quickly if they do not do something to respond to the expanding requirements for quality beer in the marketplace.This documentary definitely made me change my mind on how I thought about craft beers. I always figured it was just some fad that would eventually fade away. I see now that this is not the case at all. Craft brews are just being produced to give the marketplace a much higher quality, even if they have to pay a little more. I have a much greater respect for c raft beer manufacturers. I would hope to someday be able to brew my own beer just to see how fulfilling it can be. I will definitely start drinking more craft beers because of this documentary. References (Other Than Beer Wars) 1. BREWERS ASSOCIATION RELEASES TOP 50 BREWERIES IN 2011. †Ã‚  Brewers Association. Brewers Association, 17 Apr. 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. . 2. Chappell, Bill. â€Å"U. S. Craft Beer Brewers Thrive, Despite Small Share Of The Market. †Ã‚  NPR. org. NPR, 18 May 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. . 3. Lisheron, Mark. â€Å"Anheuser-Busch InBev Roars against Craft Breweries Bill in Texas Legislature. †Ã‚  Texas Watchdog | Investigating Government Waste, Fraud

Early Brain Development and Learning

It is not commonly known that the brain is 90% developed by age five. Most people believe that at age five children are just starting to learn. In fact, the brain absorbs more from birth to age five rather than from age five on. Parents and family can do many things to aid in the development of a baby’s brain, ultimately assisting in their learning. The sequence and rate at which the brain develops predicts the optimal times for a baby to learn. Sequence and rate is measured by milestones that a baby may reach by a certain age. Experiences are one thing that helps promote brain development. Our five senses give us these experiences. How in the first few years of life do we develop into the complex people we are today? We will look at how nature versus nurture; sensory perception; positive and negative experiences and both our social and physical environment contribute to and develop everything about whom we are as individuals. The brain is influenced in many different ways. The most important factors in brain development start with genetics, nutrition, and responsiveness from parents, daily experiences, and physical interactions. Parents need to know that children are learning and accepting more information that a fully grown adult. Children need positive and sensitive feedback from family. In the past, scientist believed that the human brains development was determined by a biologically determined path (Brotherson, 2005). This means that the brain would develop genetically through family, but leading technology and science proved that the brain is not predetermined genetically by family. The brain matures through the five senses: smell, touch, vision, taste, and hearing. The experiences that the five senses bring are very crucial to help build the connections that guide brain development. The importance of the parents understanding of the first few years of his or her child’s life is extremely important. As Titzer, P. H. D, (2008) uses a computer metaphor to explain brain development he put it this way â€Å"Your baby’s brain could be thought of as a highly responsive, self-programming computer. For the first few years, the hardware is still coming together – a baby is not a finished product, but a growing, developing individual, complete with organic â€Å"circuitry† – the central nervous system† (p. ). The brain will absorb more with more stimulation. At an earlier age stimulation for the brain circuitry is at its best. This will cause the brain circuitry to develop more effectively. The main function of the brain in the first three years of life is to create and support connections between neurons. The con nections are referred to as synapses. Synapses could be envisioned as the limbs on the tree. Imagine a large family tree with its trunk as the original lineage. Then the main branches are the families as they grow and have children. Neurons are like the trunk and the main branches of the tree. The number of neurons a baby is born with remains constant in the first three years of life. Synapses (all those years of lineage on the family tree) are all the little twigs and branches that come off the main trunk. In the first three years of life our brains synapses increase to a number in the hundreds of trillions. However, after age three the number of synapses begins to slow until age 10. During this period there are more synapses created than needed. A person creates more synapses than needed and the â€Å"use it or lose it† theory applies to all the unused synapses. The synapses being used the most, meaning the circuits that transfer information the most become permanent to the brain. The synapses not used are lost in a process called pruning. In fact, the ability to see light is lost if the eyes are not exposed to light within the first three weeks of life, hence â€Å"use it or lose it† theory (Hawley, 2003). This will happen because the synapses that can see light will be lost because they will not have been used. That is why we want to give our children as much experience socially and with learning as possible. With this kind of experience these synapses will become permanent. Brotherson (2005) describes a baby’s brain at this point like a â€Å"†super sponge† absorbing everything given to it (para. 4) The first three years are the most sensitive for learning and development (Gable & Huntington, 2001). The brain takes in these experiences through our five senses. According to Gable & Huntington (2001) â€Å"an infant’s social, emotional, cognitive, physical and language development are stimulated during multisensory experiences† (para. 12) During these first few years of life is most rapid growth period for the brain. At birth the brain is 25% developed, at six months it is 50% developed , at 30 months 75% developed and at age five it is already 90% developed. There have been many optimal opportunities for parents to teach their children many things from birth to this point already. Children at the age of two have been known to read at the reading level of a fifth grader because they were taught at the â€Å"prime time. † Acquiring the knowledge of how a baby’s brain develops and what can be done to influence it in a positive way can make a world of difference for a child. A positive influence during this critical period is very crucial. Let us take a look at nature versus nurture; sensory perception; positive and negative experiences and both our social and physical environment contribute to and develop everything about who we are as individuals. Take the study of nature, for example, our individual innate qualities versus nurture, and our personal experiences. As evidences by the recent Human Genome Project, it is currently believed that there is much more nurture than nature in the result of each of us. With this, how does nurture become nature? Let us look at the example of ‘perfect pitch’ to show the relationship between genetics and environment. This is an example of how† heredity and environment can interact† (Davies, 2001, para. 3). Davies (2003) describes perfect pitch as â€Å"The ability to recognize the absolute pitch of musical tone without any reference note. People with perfect pitch often have relatives with the same gift and research show this is a highly inherited gift, possibly the result of a single gene. However, studies also demonstrate a requirement for early musical training (before age 6) to manifest perfect pitch. Many personality and behavioral traits will not be exclusively the result of nature or nurture, but rather an inextricable combination of both† (para. 5). _ Nature versus nurture and the role that heredity and environment have in human development indicates that with almost all biological and psychological traits genes and environment work together in communication back and forth to create us as individuals . No one questions it; this is the ying and the yang, the Adam and Eve, the Mom and Pop of pop psychology and genealogy. Nature and Nurture is what made us what we are today and will determine what our children will be tomorrow. I have heard the expression that life is all about perception. We all know people who are positive and those who are negative. And each of us has either an optimistic or pessimistic personality. How we perceive the world around us is i nherently a matter of our sensory perception of the world and largely that done in the first several years of life. We have many senses but we most often refer to the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. We are born with the need for a multisensory environment. Research shows that interactions that are associated with many of emotion are more â€Å"readily remembered and recalled†_ __(Gable & Huntington, 2001, para. 17)_. With this, it is proven that with a multisensory environment we develop out temperament and emotions during an early the early stages of life. Developmental milestones are certain things that a child should be able to do by a certain age range. A child’s doctor will use these milestones to assess the development of a child in the area of his/her gross motor, fine motor, language, cognitive, and social skills. Even though each milestone has an age range, each child is different and unique so the age can vary significantly. One child may start to walk as early as seven months old and another child may not begin to walk until 16 months old and both would be considered normal. They both would be within the normal age range. In conclusion, we have looked at how genetics and environment in early brain development occurs as well as the importance of multiple sensory experiences, positive interactions, and social and physical stimulation in early development of a variety of cognitive and behavioral skills. It was briefly discussed that there are many interventions and treatments for improvement in many areas of interrupted brain development due to early childhood trauma, stress, and neglect with appropriate intervention. Many agencies today focus on education for parents and caregivers to ensure a more positive and educational experience for the early brain development. References Brotherson, Gable,S. & Hunting, M. (2001). Nature, Nurture and Early Brain Development. Retrieved from http://extension. missouri. edu/publications/DisplayPub. aspx? P=GH6115 Hawley, T. (2003). Starting Smart. How Early Experiences Affect Brain Development. Titzer, R. Ph. D. (2008). Your Baby Can Read. Carlsbad, Ca

Growth Essay Online For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3596 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Biology Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Abstract Different environmental conditions contribute to the limitations of plant growth. Salts are common and a natural constituent of all soils. Normally, salts are present in low amounts in top soil and plant growth is not affected. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Growth Essay Online For Free" essay for you Create order However, accumulation of salts, through natural means or mans activities, can cause plant growth problems and result in poor growth or death of plants. Considering that Bermuda is such a small island, farmers crops are constantly being exposed to salt spray. Therefore, there must be a saline threshold for the various crops. Bermuda is famous for The Bermuda Yellow Onion, therefore I felt it was appropriate to investigate The Salinity Tolerance of the Bermuda Yellow Onion. The objective of this study is to find out if the Bermuda Yellow Onion has a saline threshold, and if so what is this saline limit. To examine this question, I have constructed several small experiments, including the Saline Affect on Biomass, Germination Rate, Onion Growth, and the Water Content in Soil after Plant Growth. Throughout this investigation, I found that salinity effects both germination and overall growth of the Bermuda Yellow Onion, decreasing the yield percentage produced. The appearance of all plants grown in saline solutions are recognized as an effect of salt stress; poor germination and establishment, reduced plant vigour and stunted growth, smaller than normal leaves, slightly yellowing leaves, and a burnt appearance on tips of leaves. All experiments carried out show that salinity has an affect on the osmotic ability of both seed and plant, which has an effect on other plant functions such as photosynthesis and transpiration. Without the plant able to function effectively nor efficiently, the plant will produce fewer yields or eventually die, depending on the salinity strength. This discovery suggests that there is a definite saline threshold for the Bermuda Yellow Onion. Introduction Originally, Bermuda grew and exported tobacco, but during the 1870s and 1880s Bermudians approached the production of crops with a more serious attitude, and agriculture became a thriving export business. Every onion was hand picked, wrapped and packed for the market in New York. Every member of the family was involved in preparing the garden produce for export for the steamers that sailed twice a month from Hamilton. Bermuda did not only export onions to the New York market but also other garden produce such as arrowroot, celery, tomatoes, and potatoes. Because Bermudas onions were so delicious they were widely sought and enjoyed not only in the U.S. but all over, so production increased to meet the growing demand. Bermuda was often referred to as The Onion Patch and Bermudians were obviously nicknamed Onions because of this. The export of Bermuda onions came to an abrupt end when U.S. tariff walls were raised against such imports. Bermuda is quite a small island, only 21 square miles, and the crops are often exposed to salt spray from the surrounding ocean, which affects the soil that will in the long run affect plant growth. Soil is a multicomponent system, which means that soil is made up of solid, liquid and gaseous components. This system consists of inorganic and organic solid components, soil solutions and as well as a gaseous phase. These three states are in a constant flux, maintaining a state of equilibrium. This is maintained by a chain reaction, one phase will manipulate the following phases until the equilibrium state is achieved. One way of achieving equilibrium is cation exchange; this involves cations interchanging between the solid phase and the liquid phase. This exchange reaction occurs from the negative charge of soil colloids. Soil contains a mixture of different types of clays; soil salinity causes particles to bind together into aggregates, this process is called flocculation. Flocculation is good for soil aeration, root penetration, and root growth. Increasing soil salinity may have a positive effect on soil aggregation and stabilization, but high salinity also has a negative effect on plants. High sodium concentration in soil, gives an opposite affect than soil salinity. Sodium causes soil dispersion and the clay platelets and aggregate swelling. When too many sodium ions come between the clay particles, the bonded clay particles are disrupted. This separation of clay particles causes them to swell and soil dispersion occurs. Soil dispersion causes clay particles to clog soil pores; this reduces the permeability of the soil. When soil is wetted and dispersion occurs repeatedly, it then becomes solidified to a cement-like soil with little or no structure. The reason why other salts such as calcium and magnesium do not have the same affect as sodium is because they are smaller so they can collect closer to the clay particles. As shown in figure 1. Soil dispersion also has an affect on infiltr ation and hydraulic conductivity of the soil. A Lack of Water Salinity also affects the Evapotranspiration (ET), as salinity in the soil increases the ET decreases. Because of the saline soil having an osmotic pressure greater that the plant cell sap, there is a link between the effect of salinity on ET and the yield of plants. The tolerance of plants to salinity is linked to the salinity of the soil, which is known as the total amount of soluble salt in soil. The relative growth of plants in saline soils will determine their salt tolerance. You measure salinity by the range of electrical conductivity levels throughout the soil. Electrical Conductivity (EC) is the ability of a solution to transmit an electrical current. In order to determine soil salinity EC, an electrical current is imposed in a glass cell using two electrodes in a soil extract solution taken from the soil being measured. The units are usually given in deciSiemens per meter (dS/m). The salinity of seawater is usually 35 parts per thousand (also written as ppt) in mo st marine areas. This salinity measurement is a total of all the salts that are dissolved in the water. Although 35 parts per thousand is not very concentrated (the same as 3.5 parts per hundred, pph, or percent) the water in the oceans tastes very salty. The interesting thing about this dissolved salt is that it is always made up of the same types of salts and they are always in the same proportion to each other (even if the salinity is different than average). The majority of the salt is the same as table salt (sodium chloride) but there are other salts as well. The table below shows these proportions: Salinity has many consequences to the growth of plants. Considering the small size of Bermuda, salinity can contribute to hindering plant growth of farmers crops. Since Bermuda has been recognized for growing onions, I felt that it is rational to investigate the salinity tolerance of the Bermuda Yellow Onion. From the knowledge I have attained, I expect throughout my investigatio n that the yield produced by the onion will decrease with increasing salinity. Method and Materials I will concentrate on germination and the growth of onion seedlings to investigate the salinity tolerance of the Bermuda Yellow Onion. I will investigate the affect of various salinities on the germination rate and the affect of various salinities of the growth of the onions by measuring height and the biomass and dry biomass of the onion samples. Salinity concentration used will be constant in both investigations, consisting of a constant of 0ppt concentration, as well as concentrations of 0.5ppt, 1.0ppt, 1.5ppt, 2.5ppt and 3.5ppt. All experiments will be carried out in my biology classroom under controlled conditions. Experiments will be set up along side the windows so exposure to light is the same. Temperature may fluctuate because of air conditioning in the classroom, but since each sample is exposed to the same conditions, there will be no contamination to the final results. Hence, if the temperature should affect the growth in any way, each sample will be affected in the same way. Watering of samples will be daily and in precisely equal amounts, no matter what saline level the water is the samples will be supplied with the same amount of water. However there is one variable I can not have control over, human contamination. Since I will not be in the room supervising at all times I am not able to account for other students interfering with the samples, but I trust no one will cause disorder. Biomass Initially I will investigate the average dry biomass of random onion seedlings so I will be able to compare water content at a later stage. Dry bio mass will be found by firstly recording 10 random onion seedling samples masses then leaving them in a drying oven until a constant mass is obtained. Drying oven will be set at a temperature of 100oC; because of course 100oC is the temperature at which water boils. Therefore I will be able to evaluate the average percentage water mass loss of the seedlings grown in the Investigation of saline affect on Germination Using Petri dishes I will investigate the affect of various salinities on the germination rate. It takes 7-14 days for an onion seed to germinate, so I will carry out the experiment over a 2 week period. Each Petri dish will be lined with three layers of paper towel and watered daily with 5 ml of water to ensure accuracy (show in the figure below). For each saline concentration there will be five Petri dishes containing 20 seeds each. Investigation of saline affect on Onion Growth Pot trials will be carried out in 4 gallon pots over a 7 week period; in each pot I will grow 5 onion seedlings 10-15 cm apart in -3/4 inch of soil deep. Each seedling will have an initial height of 6.75 cm above soil, and I will be weekly their progress or even retreat. Seedlings require 1 inch of water per week, so each sample set will be watered 1 inch relevant to the 4 gallon pots, which is approximately 1.5L of water. Therefore Plants will be watered daily with 200ml of water. Deionized water will be used to eliminate other ions as a variable. To make the saline solutions I will add 1 kg of water approximately for every ppt amount in grams of dissolved salts, for each specified saline percentage Consider 5ppt: when 5g/1kg=5g/1000g and 1g=1ml, then 1000g=1liter, therefore 5g of NaCl per liter of water(5g/1l)=5ppt To avoid phototropism pots will be rotated daily because sunlight thorough the window is the only source of light plant samples will receive. Following the seven week period seedlings will be extracted from the soil measured and weighed and then placed into the drying oven until a constant dry bio mass is found. Investigation of water content in soil after plant growth Along with the experiments I will also take samples of soil from each individual saline percentage pot at the end of the experiment to investigate the water content of the different salinity concentrated soils. (Soil samples will be taken from a dept if 10cm) I will take 3 samples of each concentrated soil and place them in small crucibles, in order to obtain the soils mass, I will have to weigh the crucible before and after placing the soil sample in the crucible. To find the water content of the soil samples I will place the crucibles containing the soil samples into a drying oven at a temperature of 100oC, and then measure the mass of each sample after (samples will be left in drying oven for 3 days and measured each day to obtain a constant mass result). Salinity effect on germination rate is very evident. At the highest salinity levels 2.5% and 3.5%, seeds are not able to germinate at all. While at the lower salinities, germination rate increase as salinity levels decrea se. This is because the NaCl in the saline solution attracts the water molecules restricting the uptake of water. As a result the more saline the solution is, the greater the attraction between NaCl molecule and water molecules will be. This results in an impact on the osmotic ability of the seeds. The germination of seeds is dependent on both internal and external conditions, with one of those conditions including the availability of water. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to absorb a significant amount of water, relative to the seeds dry biomass, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds respond best when there is enough water to moisten the seeds but not soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called imbibitions, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food source, such as starch, proteins, or oils, to provide nourishment to the growing embryo inside the seed. When the seed imbibes enzymes are activated that break down the stored food into metabolically useful chemicals, allowing the cells of the embryo to divide and grow, so the seedling can emerge from the seed. For that reason, without the right supply of water, the cellular metabolic pathways will not take place. There is an immediate effect on the growth of onions once salt is introduced to the environment. Plants grown in 0% salinity progressively grows over the seven week period, while salinities 0.5% and 1.0% decrease within the fifth week and begin to slowly progress again. Plants grown in salinities of 0.5% began to grow with high progression and had a very large decrease. Plants grown in salinities of 1.5% progress slightly and in the fourth week, growth declines and in the last week plants begins to progress again. Plants grown in salinities 2.5% and 3.5% had scarcely any progression, plants seem to stay at almost a constant height until plants die. Although in the beginning, plants s eem to make some sort of progression, in the end plants grown in saline solutions show an extreme case of drought stress. As plants are continually watered with saline solutions, the salt begins to accumulate in the soil. With increasing salt accumulating in to soil, the greater the inhabitation of uptake of water to the plant is. Explaining why plants grown at lower salinities appear in the beginning to progress then suddenly have a great decrease in growth. As the experiment progressed unpredictably, seedlings began to disappear. I concluded a possible answer causing this problem could be that as water was being retained in the soil and roots begin to rot. There is an excess of water in plants grown in saline waters, because of the fact that salt inhibits water uptake, the excess of water makes it difficult for the roots to receive any oxygen, thus leading to roots rotting. As well, of course without roots there is no way in which a plant is able to transport material in and ou t leading to overall death of the plant. Explaining why plant began to disappear throughout the experiment. It is apparent that salinity has an affect on plant yield. All plants grown in saline soils parentage yield has decreased in fresh biomass. That fact that only plants grown in saline soils of 1.5%-3.5% has a decrease shows that there may be a saline threshold for Bermuda Yellow Onion. Since water moves into the cells because they are full of salts and sugars shows that Bermuda Yellow Onions cell sap concentration of salt is lower than 1.5%. Root cells receive sugars from the leaves and actively absorb salts from the soil. This concentration of salts and sugars causes water from the soil to move into the cell. But if the solution out side the root cells are more concentrated with salt than the solution inside the root cells than water will not diffuse into the cells. Water is truly vital for growth. Plants grow in two ways, cell division and cell expansion. Cell divisi on creates more cells and cell expansion is the increase in cell size. Cells grow by taking up water. If water is reduced during growth, final cell size and overall plant growth is reduced. Increasing salinity values causes drought stress for the plants resulting in smaller, weaker plants. With the lack of water, there is a of soluble salts and sugars therefore photosynthesis cannot occur efficiently, explaining the less biomass produced in the higher salinity levels. Plants need water for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces biomass in which energy from sunlight converts carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates and oxygen. If they lack it, they wilt. When they have a deficiency of water, the stomata close and CO2 cannot diffuse into the leaves. Without CO2, photosynthesis would not occur, as it should. (Refer to Appendix 1, Table 6) The water content if saline soils are very similar on either end of the saline scale. Low salinities of 0-1 are similar and higher salinit ies of 1.5-3.5 are similar. Although there is a generous jump between the two set groups. This jump further enhances the possibility of a salinity threshold of the Bermuda yellow Onion. As salinity inhibits the osmotic affect less water is taken up by plants roots, so daily watering will not help the plant to absorb any more water. Therefore, more water is left in the soil. Plants grown in salinities 2.5% and 3.5%, demonstrate this because towards the end of the experiment water began to retain in the bottom on the trays. A saline soil is defined as having a high concentration of soluble salts, high enough to affect plant growth. In saline soils water is held tighter to the soil, the presence of salt in the water causes plants to exert more energy extracting water from the soil. The main point is that excess salinity in soil water can decrease plant available water and cause plant stress. There are several factors that hinder water flow from the soil to the roots. One is th e soil-root contact, and as the root dries out it shrinks away for the soil particles. Therefore, soils of higher salinities retain a greater amount of water, thus providing more evidence that salinity inhibits plants osmotic ability. High sodium concentration in soil causes soil dispersion and the clay platelets and aggregate swell. When too many sodium ions come between the clay particles, the bonds between the clay particles are disrupted. This separation of clay particles causes them to swell and soil dispersion occurs. Soil dispersion causes clay particles to clog soil pores; reducing the permeability of the soil. The ideal soil is one that holds moisture and at the same time allows a constant flow of air through the soil. Soil cannot be over-saturated with water or air would be excluded. The reason why soil is so important to a plants survival is this need to maintain a balance between moisture and air. The quality of the soil, as determined by physical characteristic s, can help or hinder a plant. In this case the quality of saline soils hinder a plants growth, with soils retaining water, it prevents airflow getting to the roots. Airflow brings oxygen to the roots and to micro-organisms, and removes carbon dioxide from the soil. With a lack of oxygen to the roots respiration and ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation, a process that essentially requires the presence of oxygen will not occur. Evaluation During the investigation of Salinity effect on Onion growth experiment, I ran into some problems with collecting the data. Since Onion seedlings grow with multiple leaves I was not completely sure how to measure the height, hence do I measure only the tallest leaf. Then again, do I measure each individual leaf? I decided to measure each individual leaf, but then I ran into a problem with my decision, as the investigation progressed, leaves began to die and new shoots appeared. With this I could not keep track of what leaves had died and which leaves are the new ones, with that I decided to jus keep the measurements of the tallest leaf, and continue taking only the measurement of the tallest leaf. I also could have grown the plants in a more controlled area, because I am not able to account for anyone tampering with the experiment. Conclusion The Bermuda Yellow Onion can tolerate salinity levels up to 1.0% 1.5%, but only for a short period. If plants are continually watered with the same saline solution, the salt will eventually accumulate in the soil and show severe signs of drought stress. This tolerance level is present because the cell sap has a certain concentration level and once the saline soils exceeds the cell sap concentration, the plants can no longer grow, (tolerate) the saline soils. This is because once the solution outside the soil is higher than the solution inside the cells, naturally osmosis occurs and the cells become flaccid. Water is essential in the plant environment for a number of reasons. Water transports minerals through the soil to the roots where they are absorbed by the plant. Water is also the principal medium for the chemical and biochemical processes that support plant metabolism. It also acts as a solvent for dissolved sugars and minerals transported throughout the plant. In ad dition, evaporation within intercellular spaces provides the cooling mechanism that allows plants to maintain the favorable temperatures necessary for metabolic processes. Without the essential amount of water, the essential minerals would not be transported throughout the plant leading to growth deficiency. As this is a problem in Bermuda because the island is so small farmers land is constantly exposed to salt spray. There is no way to reverse the effect of salinity, but there are ways in which farmers could successfully grow plants in high saline soils. By providing adequate drainage, maintain adequate soil moisture, and simply grow salt tolerant plants.